Ancient Epic and Tragedy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Ancient Epic and Tragedy - Essay Example Seated around the altar of Zeus are Amphitryon, the man known as the father of Heracles, Megara, the wife of Heracles, and the three sons of Megara and Heracles. Heracles himself is believed to be dead, descended into the kingdom of Hades to retrieve the three-headed dog Cerberus, never to return. Amphitryon summarizes the history of the family as the play opens, introducing Megara and her three children and repeating the reason why Heracles had to leave his family. He embarked on his tasks for Eurystheus in order to succeed to the Fortress of Argos. However, because of the circumstances of his birth, Heracles has always to contend with the jealousy of Hera, the queen of heaven: ‘Whether Hera’s jealousy, or Fate’s decree, imposed/Such labours on him, who can say?’ (154) Heracles father is Zeus, the king of heaven, who seduced Alcmene, the wife of Amphitryon. Amphitryon raised Heracles as his own son and loves and protects Heracles’ sons as his grandc hildren. Megara’s father, Creon, was king of Thebes but has recently been deposed by Lycus; this makes their situation very bleak and dangerous, Amphitryon states: Grandfather, mother and children are hemmed in and threatened on all sides. Murder leads to more murder in the rhetoric of this kind of tragedy. Lycus, in order to seize and consolidate power, must murder the royal family and all their descendents and relatives he can get access to. So, the family tableau with which the play opens, is one of tragic proportions already as they are prisoners of Lycus surrounding the altar of Zeus to appeal to the gods for their help. Overruling anything Megara might be able to do, however, is the jealousy of Hera that manipulates the situation around Heracles. Megara asks: ‘So now, father, what hope, what means to save our lives/Have you in mind?’ (155). Hope is the talisman that Amphitryon hangs on to and ‘hope’ is centered upon Heracles.

Customer Satisfaction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6750 words

Customer Satisfaction - Essay Example The product development cycle starts with the assessment of the customer's needs and ends when the design is finally released. In this highly competitive environment world class organizations are supposed to implement the TQM strategy in order to continually seek better performance. In the world we live today, it must be amply clear that; In fact these guiding principles are inextricably linked to each other and development of this thought along with the development of other business processes can lead to some form of a competitive advantage in the market. The modern view of quality is that products should totally satisfy the customer's needs and expectations in every respect on a continuous basis. This new concept calls for a well designed product with functional perfection, providing satisfaction beyond customer's expectation, excellence in service and absolute empathy with customer. TQM therefore encompasses a set of critical factors (Powell, 1995; Li et al., 2003; Arawati, 2005). In general, some of these critical factors can be identified as; Top management commitment: The top management of a company must be convinced enough to adopting quality control programmes. This will help in conditioning the attitude of other departmental heads to regularly monitor the quality aspect. StrategicStrategic planning: Strategic planning is a process which, through an examination of external and internal factors for an organisation, results in a set of mission, purpose, objectives, policies, plans and programmes for implementation. Customer focus: A progressive organisation is supposed to have a strategy for quality which is based on customer perceptions of quality. Customer service after the sale of a product is considered as important as the quality of the product itself. Benchmarking: It is the process of following the best in the industry. Human resource management: Human resources form the crucial part of any organisation. They are the key players in producing and delivering quality. Supplier relationship: Suppliers too have a role in quality assurances as their role encompasses the identification, acquisition, access, positioning, and management of the resources required for the product and the company. Continuous improvement: Improvement is a never ending cyclic process. Product Quality requires to be continually improved to remain in the competition. Quality information system: How the quality principles are being implemented in the company and if required the management can decide to take a corrective course of action midway, is determined by the Quality Information System (QIS). It was in early 90s that the concept of Total Quality Management started being promoted as a way for business to wring out inefficiencies and boost productivity. TQM was considered the only way to effectively compete with the Japanese dominance in the manufacturing sector. It is a description of the culture, attitude and organization of a company that strives to provide customers with products and services satisfying their needs. KLEEMANN's activities1 concern both the manufacturing and

A summary of criminological theories

A summary of criminological theories Criminology Matrix Demographic Information Social Disorganization Theory Beginning on the 20th Century 1920-1930’s. Created by theorists Robert Park, Ernest Burgess, W.I. Thomas, Florian Znaniecki, Clifford Shaw, and Henry McKay. Social disorganization shows social change, conflict, and the lack of social consensus as the root causes of crime and deviance. Social disorganization, Chicago school of criminology, Chicago Area Project, demographics, concentric zones, delinquency areas, and cultural transmission (Schmalleger, 2008). Strain Theory Began on the 20th century 1930’s to present. Created by Robert K. Merton, Steven F. Messner, Richard Rosenfeld, Peter Blau, Judith Blau, and Robert Agnew. The concept of strain theory is innovation, ritualism, rebellion, differential opportunity, relative deprivation, and distributive justice. Strain theory agues that a socially approved success of goals and a lack of appropriate ways to achieve those goals. As a consequence, according to the perspective of strain theory, individuals who are unable to succeed often turn to other ways that promise social recognition and success (Schmalleger, 2008). Culture Conflict Culture conflict began on the 1920’s to present. Created by theorists Thorsten Sellin, Frederic M. Thrasher, William F. Whyte, Walter Miller, Gresham Sykes, David Matza, Franco Ferracuti, Marvin Wolfgang, Richard A. Cloward, Lloyd E. Ohlin, and Albert Cohen. The concept of culture conflict is subcultures, socialization, delinquency and, illegal opportunities (Schmalleger, 2008). Learning Theory Learning theory began in 1930’s and to the present. Created by Edwin Sutherland, Robert Burgess, Ronald L. Akers, and Daniel Glaser. Actions are learned, and crime is like another action that is also learned. People tend to learn how to commit crime from others, and such learning comes from the achievements of norms, values, and patterns of behaviors that are conductive to crime. The standpoint of the theory’s concept is that communication and social achievement of learned criminal behavior that values that behavior is detrimental (Schmalleger, 2008). Social Control Theory Social control theory began on the 1950’s to present. Created by Walter C. Reckless, Howard B. Kaplan, Travis Hirschi, Michael Gottfredson, Charles R. Tittle, and others. The concept of social control theory is the inner and outer takeover, of self-derogation, social bond, and control balanced. Social control theory predicts that when a social restriction or antisocial behavior are weakened delinquent behavior begins. This theory questions law abiding citizens rather than criminals (Schmalleger, 2008). Labeling Theory Labeling theory began on 1938-1970, 1960’s-1980, 1990’s to revival. Created by Frank Tannenbaum, Edwin M. Lemert, Howard Becker, John Braithwaite, and others. The concept of labeling theory begins with tagging, labeling, outsiders, moral initiative, primary and secondary deviance, and shaming. Labeling theory is the concept that negative labels within a society lead individuals to commit crime (Schmalleger, 2008). Rational Choice Theory Rational choice theory began in the late 18th century. Created by Cesare Beccaria. The concept of rational choice theory is that criminals make a rational, and informed choice to commit a crime. This makes criminals making the decision, based on, if the crime is worth committing based on the benefits that outweigh the cost or punishment. The XYY â€Å"Supermale† The XYY theory began in 1965. Created by Patricia A. Jacobs. Patricia Jacobs examined 197 Scottish prisoners for chromosomal abnormalities with a simple blood test. The supermale, also known as XYY syndrome has little evidence that men with this syndrome commit crimes of greater violence than other man. However, they may commit more crimes (Schmalleger, 2008). Behavior Genetics Behavior genetics theory began in 1907. Created by Sir Francis Galton. Sir Francis study heredity and the possible influences on human behavior. According to the theory it is easy to show that some criminals inherit criminal nature. Behavioral genetics is â€Å"the study of genes and the environmental contributions to individual deviation in human behavior† Galton might have believe that heredity was related to criminal behavior however, he had no opportunity to explore the relationship in profundity (Schmalleger, 2008). Sociobiology Sociobiology began in 1975. Created by Edward O. Wilson. It is the study of biology and its impact on social behavior taking some of its research from evolution and applying it to modern population (Schmalleger, 2008). Certain forms of behavior contribute to the survival of a social group. Human behavior was the link of survival from one generation to another one. Territoriality explains the conflict between humans, this includes homicide, warfare, and other types of aggression. Pherenology Pherenology began in early 19th century. Created by Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828). This theory explained that the shape of the human skull was an indicative of the personality and could be used to predict criminality. The theory has four tenets the brain, personality, character, and skull shape (Schmalleger, 2008). Early Positivism Early positivism began in 1880’s – 1930. Created by Franz Joseph Gall, Johann Gaspar Spurzheim, Cesare Lombroso, Charkes Buckman Goring, and Earnest A. Hooton. The concept of early positivism is the phrenology, atavism, born criminals, and criminaloids. Criminality was the result of instincts that humans used to survive the evolutionary process. Lombroso has been called the father of criminology because he was the first criminologist to apply the scientific method. Empirical Foundation Social Disorganization Theory Four distinct conclusions resulted from Shaw and McKay’s research. The juveniles’ rates were consistent with an order three-dimensional pattern. There was an identical three-dimensional pattern revealed by several social problems. The three-dimensional pattern of juvenile rates showed long-term stability even though the structure in the city areas had changed. The city areas were becoming more delinquent this occurred through a network or interpersonal relation with family, gangs, and neighbors (Shaw, 1969). Strain Theory Merton said that all people have high economic ambitions and that social classes are linked to crime. Merton said that when individuals had high goals with income and education coupled with low chances of achieving the goals is strain theory (Liska, 1971). Studies with educational goals as measurements were unconvincing and suggested that income was a better component to use. Different studies used goals over expectation and reported any criminal connection which found hardly any support for Merton’s theory (Epps, 1967). Culture Conflict Thorsten Sellin observed that in a society were two cultures inevitably clash and it occurs because of the development of a combined culture. One of the outcomes of culture conflict is criminal behavior. This leads to the creation of criminals defining the surrounding everyday behavior of the individual. Sellin indicated that a diversified and more assorted society the bigger it gets and the more conflict occurs creating an increase in deviance (Claasical Criminology, 2002). Learning Theory Sutherland’s Learning Theory was based on observation. The studies concluded that criminal behavior is learned. Not only it is learned but criminal behavior is learned within intimate groups. It also shows that differential associations vary in frequency, duration priority, and intensity (Boundless, 2014). Social Control Theory Walter C. Reckless, observes that social pressure to follow community ideals, usually imposed by social isolation, was sufficient to control behavior. As society becomes complex, authority played a significant role in deciding whether people followed public laws. The research has found that economic class has little to do with predicting delinquent behavior, and that young people who do not connect or have attachment to parents or school are more likely to become juveniles (Criminology, n.d.). Labeling Theory In 2003, Jon Gunnar Bernburg and Marvin D. Krohn studied the impact of negative official intervention on young men in Rochester, New York. Data available was on men from the time they were 13.5 years old until they were 22. In keeping with what labeling theory would predict, Bemburg and Krohn found that intervention during adolescence led to increased delinquency in early adulthood because it reduced chances for achievement and successful employment. Negative labels come with harsh liabilities, as well as the consequence that the person starts to believe the label that has been given to him. (Schmalleger, 2008). Rational Choice Theory The research involving rational choice cannot be measured with regular crime statistics. It can only be applied through individual research because the theory is too specific to individuals (Schmalleger, 2008). XYY Theory Britished researcher examined 197 Scottish prisoners for deviations from regular chromosomes through a simple blood test known as â€Å"karyotyping† 12 members displayed a deviation of chromosomes that were unusual, and seven were found to have an XYY chromosome (Schmalleger, 2008). Behavior Genetics Twin researchers assumed that individuals choose partners that have an opposing personality. Equal environments, twin research also assumed that twins raised in similar environment share similar experiences. Genetic traits can be inherited through different genetic mechanisms involving a gene inherited from one parent and different gene from the other parents (Winerman, 2004). Sociobiology Edward O. Wilson research sociobiology by examining the genetic and how through affected human behavior and applied them through criminology theory. Research on what genetics are passed on and how they affect human behavior. Theoretical Components Social Disorganization Social disorganization theory comes from Chicago school of sociology. Social Disorganization is caused when a community does not solve the problems of its people which results in the breakdown of institutions within that community (Short, 1976). The theory states that delinquent behavior was not a result of the individual but it was a normal response of people adapting to less than favorable social conditions (Short, 1976). Strain Theory Merton came up with a sociological theory that explained how deviant behavior illustrated the conflicts between culturally defined goals and the official way of getting them (Boundless, 2015). Culture Conflict Suggest that human behavior is social, that results from conflicts between competing groups. Conflict theory originated with work of Karl Marx. Marx understood that human society in terms of conflict between social classes, markedly the conflict in capitalist societies between those who owed the means of economic production and those who didn’t. (Chegg, 2015). This is a sociological theory. Learning Theory Social learning theory, looks at the individual learning process, the formation of self and the influence of society in socializing. Learning theory is the formation of one’s identity to become responsive to a learned response to social stimulation. People engage in crime because of the association with others that also engage in crime. Criminal behavior is learned beliefs that are favorable to crime (Crossman, 2015). This is a sociological theory. Control Theory Control theorists generally argue that there are no problems to explain why people who commit crime because all human beings suffer from human weaknesses which makes it impossible to resist temptation. This is a sociological theory. Labeling Theory When someone has been labelled as a criminal or deviant, the label attached becomes the individual. Each label carries prejudices and images and this leads to others interpreting the behavior of the labeled person in a particular way. While the behavior would be seen as stereotypical to some, others would conclude that it is a self-fulfilling prophecy resulting from being labelled (History Learning, 2000-2015). This is a sociological Theory. Rational Choice This theory sees man as a reasoning actor that weights means and ends, costs and benefits, and makes a rational choices. Including the choice to engage in criminal activity, criminal activity is based on determined decisions that the potential benefits outweighs the risks taken by the individual. This is a psychological theory. XYY â€Å"supermale† XYY males are more likely to engage in criminal behavior but not violent behavior. XYY men were convicted of crimes are more likely to be guilty of property offenses and less likely than convicted XY men. XYY males were born criminals, XYY males according to the theory were more likely to commit violent crimes. This is a biological Theory Behavior Genetics Behavior genetics is the field in which a difference among individuals is separated into genetic against environmental. Environmental influences can be divided into two classes, shared and nonshared environments. Shared is the environment that is mutual by siblings such as socioeconomic statues and parental education, and nonshare is the environment that is unique to a person/individual. (SAPA, 1998). Early positivism. Early Positivism is a social and psychological theory that commits to practical application. It claims that determining criminal behavior and its cause comes from the physical, genetic, and psychological makeup that makes people predisposed to behave criminally (Marshall, 2015). References Boundless. (2014, November 14). Differential Association. Retrieved from Boundless Sociology: https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/deviance-social-control-and-crime-7/the-symbolic-interactionalist-perspective-on-deviance-64/differential-association-theory-381-8939 Boundless. (2015). Strain Theory. Retrieved from Boundless: https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/deviance-social-control-and-crime-7/the-functionalist-perspective-on-deviance-62/strain-theory-how-social-values-produce-deviance-375-6183/ Chegg. (2015). Denition of Conflict. Retrieved from Chegg: http://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/conflict-theory-49 Claasical Criminology. (2002, Novemeber 18). Thorsten Sellin. Retrieved from Culture Conflict Theory: http://www.people.okanagan.bc.ca/wvdveen/WILMA WEBPAGE/classical_crim_theory/sellin.htm Criminology. (n.d.). Control Theory. Retrieved from Sociology Criminology: https://sociologycriminology.wordpress.com/control-theory/ Crossman, A. (2015). Learning Theory. Retrieved from About education: http://sociology.about.com/od/Sociological-Theory/a/Social-Learning-Theory.htm History Learning. (2000-2015). Labelling Theory. Retrieved from history Learning Site: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/labelling_theory.htm Liska, A. (1971). Aspirations and Expectations. Sociological Quarterly, 12: 99-107. Marshall, G. (2015, April 28). Criminology, Positivist. Retrieved from A Dictionary of Sociology: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O88-criminologypositivist.html SAPA. (1998, May). Bahvior Genetics. Retrieved from Personality Research: http://www.personalityresearch.org/bg.html Schmalleger. (2008). Criminology Today Fifth Edition. Columbus, Ohio: Frank Schmalleger. Short, J. F. (1976). Delinquency, Crime, and Soceity. Chicago:. University of Chicago Press. Winerman, L. (2004, April). A second Look at Twin Studies. Retrieved from American Psychological Association: http://www.apa.org/monitor/apr04/second.aspx

Proposed Mechanisms of Dreaming Essay -- Biology Essays Research Paper

Proposed Mechanisms of Dreaming New physiological discoveries made in the 1950's linked a particular phase of sleep with dreaming (8). This phase of sleep is known as the REM (rapid eye movement) phase. This newly acquired information spawned refreshed interest in the mechanisms (specifically neurophysiological mechanisms) of dreaming. Validity of the physiological and neurobiological approach to dreaming was supported by certain (current) clinically measured and observed behaviors accompanying REM sleep (8). These behaviors or characteristics include: -phasic clusters of extraocular muscles of the eye producing rapid eye movement -generalized activation of the forebrain (cerebral cortex) -phasic activation of the visual pathway -inhibition of sensory input -suppressed motor activity -activation or inhibition of various brain stem neurons. (5) Many of these behavioral markers associated with REM sleep closely dictate or reflect the dream phenomenon. Although the REM sleep phase and the dream state are closely related, REM sleep is not necessary for dreaming. However the prevalence of dreams are certainly greater in REM sleep (3). Some researchers also contend that REM dreams are uniquely different from those reported in non-REM dreams both in content and quality (11,12). Reports from REM sleep awakenings are typically longer, more vivid, and more emotionally charged than non REM sleep reports (2). Non REM sleep reports also reflect a more thought-like rumination, concerned with realistic, "common place" events (2,4,12). For many researchers, REM dreaming is considered the most elaborate or 'true' form of dreaming, especially with regards to the intense level of activation in the brain (2,4,5). According to Al... ...http://amanda.uams.edu/other/epscor/neuro_rf.html 10)2166 NIA-Basic Clinical Research on Sleep and Wakefulness http://research.utmb.edu/starline/research/starfiles/0692166.htm 11)Brain/Body Activity During Sleep and Dreams http://ipp01.sawka.com/spiritwatch/brain.htm 12)Paradigms of Consciousness During Sleep http://wwwusers.imaginet.fr/~ghibelli/dondega.html 13) Carlson,Neil (1998). Physiology of Behavior: Sixth Edition. Allyn and Bacon. Needham Heights, MA. This paper reflects the research and thoughts of a student at the time the paper was written for a course at Bryn Mawr College. Like other materials on Serendip, it is not intended to be "authoritative" but rather to help others further develop their own explorations. Web links were active as of the time the paper was posted but are not updated. http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/serendip/a2z.html

Pay for Performance Essay

Traditionally, all incentive plans are â€Å"pay-for-performance† plans. They pay all employees based on the employee’s performance (Dessler). Compensation is a primary motivator for employees. People look for jobs that not only suit their creativity and talents, but compensate them both in terms of salary and other benefits accordingly. Compensation is also one of the fastest changing fields in Human Resources, as companies continue to investigate various ways of rewarding employees for performance. It is very important for organizations to make sure that the incentive plans are well structured to need the needs of the employee and in return make the organization profitable. Giving incentive pay to employees that has not earned them destroys the motivation and moral of employees which leads to less productivity. Thanks to public outcry, shareholder outrage, and increased government scrutiny, companies are making some adjustments to their executive incentive programs. At the very least, it gives the appearance of linking pay to performance. Most managers get short-term bonuses and long-term incentives in addition to salary.50 For firms offering short-term incentive plans, virtually all 96% provide those incentives in cash. For those offering long-term incentive plans, about 48% offer stock options. These aim to motivate and reward management for long-term corporate growth in shareholder value. The size of the bonus (in terms of percentage of salary) is usually greater for top-level executives (Dessler). Often times top level management incentives are just a bit too much. They are given large stock options, cash bonuses, and other high price incentives and often times they take advantage of the situation. Enron executives are a great example of taking advantage of a good thing. This is just one down fall of the incentive program, another issue would be employee moral decrease because they often times feels like management should not receive such large rewards when they the employee feels like they are going all the work. Enron officials manipulated information to protect their interests and to deceive the public, although the extent of their deception is still to be determined. Both executives and board members claim that they weren’t aware of the company’s off-the-books partnerships and shaky financial standing. However, both Skilling and Lay were warned that the firm’s accounting tactics were suspect, and the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations concluded, â€Å"Much that was wrong with Enron was known to the board.† Enron’s leaders acted irresponsibly by failing to take needed action, failing to exercise proper oversight, and failing to shoulder responsibility for the ethical miscues of their organization. Enron officials put loyalty to themselves above loyalty to everyone else with a stake in the company’s fate-stockholders, business partners, ratepayers, local communities, and foreign governments. They also abused the trust of those who worked for them. Employees felt betrayed, in addition to losing their jobs and retirement savings. America has an ethical issue because knowledge and techniques has been used to manipulate people unethically as well as to help them develop their potential. People who lack respect for the basic dignity of the human being could learn organizational behavior ideas and use them for selfish ends. Merit pay is a plan that most state agencies use. As times have changed and budgets are tight state government has cut back on merit play. The state merit programs were used to compensate employees for exceeding their work expectations. It has been over eight years since the state has given out merit pay. Employee’s moral is very low because top level management has found ways to get their friends pay raises. Another misuse of the merit system is when an employee has performed above the call of duty and is over looked and an increase is given to a person that has been less productive but is good friends with the boss. When times are tough economically, it is more important than ever for companies to clearly communicate their commitment to employees,† said Rich Sperling, a senior consultant with Hay Group. â€Å"Employers can leverage a variety of financial and nonfinancial rewards to engage employees through tough times when budgets are tight, but communicating and reinforcing those messages through a variety of channels is critical.†(HR Focus). How do you keep an employee motivated when there is nothing extra to give them for doing a job well done? Often times just a simple recognition of a job well done will keep an employee motivated. In my office we use to have a program called â€Å"Shout Outs†. Being that funding was tight and there were no pay raises being given out due to budget cuts our Deputy Director came up with this program. Giving employee’s recognition for going above and beyond to get a job done. It was amazing how the employees reacted to this program because so many people were never given credit for a job well done. What I found out through this program was that when people are given credit for going a great job they are willing to go that extra mile above and beyond to make sure they job is done and it is quality work that is produced. Often time managers would take the credit for a job they did not perform and were given incentives and they ones that had really done the job was left in the cold. Organizations have to make sure that when incentives are given out that they people receiving the incentives are the ones that deserve them. When an employee feels appreciated they are more willing to go without the incentive pay and get the job done it’s when they feel like the organization does not value them is when they start to look for employment with a company that appreciate them and make them feel like they are valuable to the organization. In conclusion incentives are environmental factors that are established for the purpose of motivating a person. Individual incentive programs give performance-based pay to individual employees. Team-based incentives of course aim to incentivize work teams. Variable pay refers to group pay plans that tie payments to productivity or to some other measure of the firm’s profitability. Incentives play an important part in motivating employees to do a good job. When an employee feels like the organizations appreciate them rather it is with bonus pay, paid time off, recognition, family leave, or good health benefits that are more willing to go that extra mile to make sure quality service is provided. Benefits and incentives pay also helps to motivate employees they call in sick less are healthier happier people all because they feel more appreciated!!

Sir Mohammed Iqbal Biography Essay

Sir Mohammed Iqbal was born at Sialkot, India (now in Pakistan), on 9th November, 1877 of a pious family of small merchants and was educated at Government College, Lahore. He is commonly referred to as Allama Iqbal (Ø ¹Ã™â€žÃ˜ §Ã™â€¦Ã›  Ø §Ã™â€šÃ˜ ¨Ã˜ §Ã™â€žÃ¢â‚¬Å½, Allama meaning â€Å"Scholar†). In Europe from 1905 to 1908, he earned his degree in philosophy from the University of Cambridge, qualified as a barrister in London, and received a doctorate from the University of Munich. His thesis, The Development of Metaphysics in Persia, revealed some aspects of Islamic mysticism formerly unknown in Europ On his return from Europe, he gained his livelihood by the practice of law, but his fame came from his Persian- and Urdu-language poetry, which was written in the classical style for public recitation. Through poetic symposia and in a milieu in which memorizing verse was customary, his poetry became widely known, even among the illiterate. Almost all the cultured Indian and Pakistani Muslims of his and later generations have had the habit of quoting Iqbal. Before he visited Europe, his poetry affirmed Indian nationalism, as in Naya shawala (â€Å"The New Altar†), but time away from India caused him to shift his perspective. He came to criticize nationalism for a twofold reason: in Europe it had led to destructive racism and imperialism, and in India it was not founded on an adequate degree of common purpose. In a speech delivered at Aligarh in 1910, under the title â€Å"Islam as a Social and Political Ideal,† he indicated the new Pan-Islamic direction of his hopes. The recurrent themes of Iqbal’s poetry are a memory of the vanished glories of Islam, a complaint about its present decadence, and a call to unity and reform. Reform can be achieved by strengthening the individual through three successive stages: obedience to the law of Islam, self-control, and acceptance of the idea that everyone is potentially a vicegerent of God (na`ib, or mu`min). Furthermore, the life of action is to be preferred to ascetic resignation. Three significant poems from this period, Shikwah (â€Å"The Complaint†), Jawab-e shikwah (â€Å"The Answer to the Complaint†), and Khizr-e rah (â€Å"Khizr, the Guide†), were published later in 1924 in the Urdu collection Bang-e dara (â€Å"The Call of the Bell†). In those works Iqbal gave intense expression to the anguish of Muslim powerlessness. Khizr (Arabic: Khidr), the Qur`anic  prophet who asks the most difficult questions, is pictured bringing from God the baffling problems of the early 20th century. Notoriety came in 1915 with the publication of his long Persian poem Asrar-e khudi (The Secrets of the Self). He wrote in Persian because he sought to address his appeal to the entire Muslim world. In this work he presents a theory of the self that is a strong condemnation of the self-negating quietism (i.e., the belief that perfection and spiritual peace are attained by passive absorption in contemplation of God and divine things) of classical Islamic mysticism; his criticism shocked many and excited controversy. Iqbal and his admirers steadily maintained that creative self-affirmation is a fundamental Muslim virtue; his critics said he imposed themes from the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche on Islam. The dialectical quality of his thinking was expressed by the next long Persian poem, Rumuz-e bikhudi (1918; The Mysteries of Selflessness). Written as a counterpoint to the individualism preached in the Asrar-ekhudi, this poem called for self-surrender. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. . Lo, like a candle wrestling with the night †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. . O’er my own self I pour my flooding tears †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ I spent my self, that there might be more light, †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. .. More loveliness, more joy for other men. The Muslim community, as Iqbal conceived it, ought effectively to teach and to encourage generous service to the ideals of brotherhood and justice. The mystery of selflessness was the hidden strength of Islam. Ultimately, the only satisfactory mode of active self-realization was the sacrifice of the self in the service of causes greater than the self. The paradigm was the life of the Prophet Muhammad and the devoted service of the first believers. The second poem completes Iqbal’s conception of the final destiny of the self. Later, he published three more Persian volumes. Payam-e Mashriq (1923; â€Å"Message of the East†), written in response to J.W. von Goethe’s West-à ¶stlicher Divan (1819; â€Å"Divan of West and East†), affirmed the universal validity of Islam. In 1927 Zabur-e ‘Ajam (â€Å"Persian Psalms†)  appeared, about which A.J. Arberry, its translator into English, wrote: â€Å"Iqbal displayed here an altogether extraordinary tal ent for the most delicate and delightful of all Persian styles, the ghazal,† or love poem. Javid-nameh (1932; â€Å"The Song of Eternity†) is considered Iqbal’s masterpiece. Its theme, reminiscent of Dante’s Divine Comedy, is the ascent of the poet, guided by the great 13th-century Persian mystic Jalal ad-Din ar-Rumi, through all the realms of thought and experience to the final encounter. Iqbal’s later publications of poetry in Urdu were Bal-e Jibril (1935; â€Å"Gabriel’s Wing†), Zarb-e kalim (1937; â€Å"The Blow of Moses†), and the posthumous Armaghan-e Hijaz (1938; â€Å"Gift of the Hejaz†), which contained verses in both Urdu and Persian. He is considered the greatest poet in Urdu of the 20th century. Upon his return to India in 1908, Iqbal took up assistant professorship at the Government College in Lahore, but for financial reasons he relinquished it within a year to practice law. During this period, Iqbal’s personal life was in turmoil. He divorced Karim Bibi in 1916, but provided financial support to her and their children for the rest of his life. While maintaining his legal practice, Iqbal began concentrating on spiritual and religious subjects, and publishing poetry and literary works. He became active in the Anjuman-e-Himayat-e-Islam, a congress of Muslim intellectuals, writers and poets as well as politicians, and in 1919 became the general secretary of the organisation. Iqbal’s thoughts in his work primarily focused on the spiritual direction and development of human society, centred around experiences from his travel and stay in Western Europe and the Middle East. He was profoundly influenced by Western philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Henri Bergson and Goethe, and soon became a strong critic of Western society’s separation of religion from state and what he perceived as its obsession with materialist pursuits. The poetry and philosophy of Mawlana Rumi bore the deepest influence on Iqbal’s mind. Deeply grounded in religion since childhood, Iqbal would begin intensely concentrating on the study of Islam, the culture and history of Islamic civilization and its political future, and embrace Rumi as â€Å"his  guide.† Iqbal would feature Rumi in the role of a guide in many of his poems, and his works focused on reminding his readers of the past glories of Islamic civilization, and delivering a message of a pure, spiritual focus on Islam as a source for socio-political liberation and greatness. Iqbal denounced political divisions within and amongst Muslim nations, and frequently alluded to and spoke in terms of the global Muslim community, or the Ummah. Iqbal’s first work published in Urdu, the Bang-e-Dara (The Call of the Marching Bell) of 1924, was a collection of poetry written by him in three distinct phases of his life.[4] The poems he wrote up to 1905, the year Iqbal left for England imbibe patriotism and imagery of landscape, and includes the Tarana-e-Hind (The Song of India), popularly known as Saare Jahan Se Achcha and another poem Tarana-e-Milli (Anthem of the (Muslim) Community), which was composed in the same metre and rhyme scheme as Saare Jahan Se Achcha. The second set of poems date from between 1905 and 1908 when Iqbal studied in Europe and dwell upon the nature of European society, which he emphasized had lost spiritual and religious values. This inspired Iqbal to write poems on the historical and cultural heritage of Islamic culture and Muslim people, not from an Indian but a global perspective. Iqbal urges the global community of Muslims, addressed as the Ummah to define personal, social and political existence by the values and teachings of Islam. Poems such as Tulu’i Islam (Dawn of Islam) and Khizr-e-Rah (The Guided Path) are especially acclaimed. Iqbal preferred to work mainly in Persian for a predominant period of his career, but after 1930, his works were mainly in Urdu. The works of this period were often specifically directed at the Muslim masses of India, with an even stronger emphasis on Islam, and Muslim spiritual and political reawakening. Published in 1935, the Bal-e-Jibril (Wings of Gabriel) is considered by many critics as the finest of Iqbal’s Urdu poetry, and was inspired by his visit to Spain, where he visited the monuments and legacy of the kingdom of the Moors. It consists of ghazals, poems, quatrains, epigrams and carries a strong sense religious passion.[4] The Pas Cheh Bayed Kard ai Aqwam-e-Sharq (What are we to do, O Nations of the East?) includes the poem Musafir (Traveller). Again, Iqbal depicts Rumi as a character and an exposition of the mysteries of Islamic laws and Sufi perceptions is given. Iqbal laments the dissension and disunity among the Indian Muslims as well as Muslim nations. Musafir is an account of one of Iqbal’s journeys to Afghanistan, in which the Pashtun people are counseled to learn the â€Å"secret of Islam† and to â€Å"build up the self† within themselves.[4] Iqbal’s final work was the Armughan-e-Hijaz (The Gift of Hijaz), published posthumously in 1938. The first part contains quatrains in Persian, and the second part contains some poems and epigrams in Urdu. The Persian quatrains convey the impression as though the poet is travelling through the Hijaz in his imagination. Profundity of ideas and intensity of passion are the salient features of these short poems. The Urdu portion of the book contains some categorical criticism of the intellectual movements and social and political revolutions of the modern age. While dividing his time between law and poetry, Iqbal had remained active in the Muslim League. He supported Indian involvement in World War I, as well as the Khilafat movement and remained in close touch with Muslim political leaders such as Maulana Mohammad Ali and Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He was a critic of the mainstream Indian National Congress, which he regarded as dominated by Hindus and was disappointed with the League when during the 1920s, it was absorbed in factional divides between the pro-British group led by Sir Muhammad Shafi and the centrist group led by Jinnah. In November 1926, with the encouragement of friends and supporters, Iqbal contested for a seat in the Punjab Legislative Assembly from the Muslim district of Lahore, and defeated his opponent by a margin of 3,177 votes. He supported the constitutional proposals presented by Jinnah with the aim of guaranteeing Muslim political rights and influence in a coalition with the Congress, and worked with the Aga Khan and other Muslim leaders to mend the factional divisions and achieve unity in the Muslim League. His philosophical position was articulated in The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (1934), a volume based on six lectures delivered at Madras,  Hyderabad, and Aligarh in 1928-29. He argued that a rightly focused man should unceasingly generate vitality through interaction with the purposes of the living God. The Prophet Muhammad had returned from his unitary experience of God to let loose on the earth a new type of manhood and a cultural world characterized by the abolition of priesthood and hereditary kingship and by an emphasis on the study of history and nature. The Muslim community in the present age ought, through the exercise of ijtihad–the principle of legal advancement–to devise new social and political institutions. He also advocated a theory of ijma’–consensus. Iqbal tended to be progressive in adumbrating general principles of change but conservative in initiating actual change. During the time that he was delivering these lectures , Iqbal began working with the Muslim League. At the annual session of the league at Allahabad, in 1930, he gave the presidential address, in which he made a famous statement that the Muslims of northwestern India should demand status as a separate state. After a long period of ill health, Iqbal died in April 1938 and was buried in front of the great Badshahi Mosque in Lahore. Two years later, the Muslim League voted for the idea of Pakistan. That the poet had influenced the making of that decision, which became a reality in 1947, is undisputed. He has been acclaimed as the father of Pakistan, and every year Iqbal Day is celebrated by Pakistanis. Aspects of his thought are explored in K.G. Saiyidain, Iqbal’s Educational Philosophy, 6th ed. rev. (1965), a standard analysis of the relevance of Iqbal’s ideas about education written by a distinguished Indian educationist; Annemarie Schimmel, Gabriel’s Wing, 2nd ed. (1989), a thorough analysis of Iqbal’s religious symbolism, including a comprehensive bibliography in English; Syed Abdul Vahid, Iqbal: His Art and Thought, new ed. (1959), a standard introduction; Hafeez Malik (ed.), Iqbal, Poet-Philosopher of Pakistan (1971), representative Pakistani views; and S.M .H. Burney (S.M.H. Barni), Iqbal, Poet-Patriot of India (1987), focusing on nationalism and secularism in his poetry.